The study of vegetation and naturalness in the province of Benevento (southern Italy) was conducted through a series of complementary steps starting from a preliminary phase of bibliographical research. To draw up the theme map, after the preparatory phase of GIS-based cartographic support, a photo-interpretation phase was conducted for the whole province of Benevento on the basis of orthophotos at a scale of 1:10.000 taken in 1997-1998 supplied by the Provincial Authority. We produced a map which chiefly takes account of the physiognomic features of vegetation alongside floristic data. Throughout the province of Benevento we identified 21 main floristic types grouped into four categories, which include three physiognomic categories and one category grouping the areas greatly affected by human impact. For each vegetation type we calculated the percentage of the area against the whole surface area of the province. Starting from the vegetation map, the vegetation types in the area were reclassified according to the scale of naturalness ordered according to the criterion of proximity to the mature vegetation phase. The conservation status of the plant landscape in the province of Benevento was thus assessed by using the
In the context of biodiversity conservation and sustainable land management, the environmental mosaic has to be analysed, described and indexed. Assessment of the degree of plant landscape conservation is a most interesting objective for careful, modern land management. Vegetation comprises:
the environmental component for identifying the biotopes as defined by the EC Habitat Directive;
the primary kingdom of biodiversity;
what actually determines the structure of animal communities;
one of the most significant indicators of the degree of environmental quality and for correlating the biosphere with the substrate;
biomass involved in soil formation, dynamics and evolution;
the biological element of climatic mitigation;
the component to which the key role of ecological protection is attributed;
the most versatile renewable natural resource.
Consequently, it appears evident that, from the analysis of vegetation quality and its distributional range, it is possible to identify the degree of landscape conservation (naturalness) which may be assessed on the basis of consistency, or otherwise, with the soil vegetation cover and the corresponding potential vegetation (
A vegetation map usually involves the representation of similar plant categories and communities grouped by certain features and defined on the basis of vascular plants. Although some plant forms such as bryophytes and fungi are excluded, this does not mean that the vegetation map is a mere construct: it represents the distribution of vegetation types consisting of autotrophic plants which constitute the source of an area’s primary productivity. All the other organic components of the environment, from fungi to animals, depend trophically on vegetation and on its variations in space and time. The plant cover of an area, when there is no external human pressure, tends towards a state of equilibrium with the environment in which it develops and tends to be distributed uniformly in homogeneous area contexts, resulting in a continuous phenomenon.
Here we present a multi-phase study of the vegetation and consequent naturalness of the province of Benevento, starting from a preliminary bibliographical research phase (
To draw up the thematic map, the preparatory phase of GIS-based cartographic support was followed by photointerpretation performed on the whole area of the province of Benevento on the basis of 1997-1998 orthophotos at a scale of 1: 10.000 supplied by the Provincial Authority. Each vegetation type was selected according to a subdivision of the various physiognomies which was possible by making allowances for colour hue and saturation; the areas were then classified according to the legend of the Campania soil use map at a scale of 1:50.000, in turn appropriately integrated thanks to field surveys which allowed the item “broad-leafed woods” to be broken down into nine forest types. This enabled us to enrich the ecological information expressed by each of them.
Field surveys were subsequently carried out to confirm the physiognomic data and to collect floristic data according to scheduled campaigns, using the model of area subdivision into IGM sheets at 1:50.000, each subdivided into sixteenths, as originally adopted for the floristic map of central Europe (
Each plant community, in terms of its floristic features, was assessed in sample areas of known sizes (250 m2). In particular, in areas covering great altitudinal differences, more than one sample area was analysed. The subsequent phase was that of delimiting areas on a cartographic basis, their digitization and their subsequent processing within the Geographic Information system. The maps were then reproduced on paper according to 1:50.000 sheets (
The state of conservation of the vegetation landscape in the area of the Province of Benevento was assessed by using the
Starting from the vectorial map of natural vegetation of the province of Benevento (
where
The
The value of
Throughout the province of Benevento we identified 21 main floristic and physiognomic types (
This group contains wood and forest vegetation types. The category was subdivided into nine floristic types identified by the dominant and co-dominant species representing the plant community which were identified, delimited and mapped.
1. “High forest formations with
2. “Single-trunk forest formations with
3. “Dishomogeneous and discontinuous forest formations with
4. “Deciduous mixed woods with
5. “Mesophile woodland formations with
6. “Evergreen woods on calcareous substrates with
7. “Mixed woodland degraded with dominant
8. “Transition woodland formations with an irregular structure on the montane and submontane belts between chestnut woods and beechwoods. Frequent species are
9. “Hygrophilous woodland along water courses with dominant species
This group consists of fruticose and suffruticose woody perennials under six metres tall. It is divided into four floristic and physiognomic types, identified by their dominant and co-dominant species.
10. “Aspects of pioneer vegetation evolving in logged areas, abandoned fields or fire-affected areas with
11. “Evergreen Mediterranean
12. “Sparse thermophilous shrubland on calcareous rocks with
13. “Sparse natural shrubland on rocky outcrops”. This is used to define particularly sparse plant cover which grows on calcareous rocks at hill and submontane levels. The species are represented by small suffruticose shrubs, bulbous and rhizomatous plants.
This group includes both stable and successional spontaneous herbaceous vegetation consisting of annual, biennial and perennial herbaceous species. This category was subdivided into three floristic types identified by their dominant and co-dominant species.
14. “Upland meadows, often degraded and used for pasture, and mesophile meadows on karst plains”. This expression is used to identify all the areas affected by stable herbaceous vegetation always used for pasture. These are particularly rich in species belonging to the family of Graminaceae; also numerous are broad-leaf species which indicate extensive exploitation of the pastures. This vegetation formation is found on the limestone reliefs of Mt. Taburno, Mt. Camposauro, Mt. Matese and on carstic plains such as Piano Melaino and Piano Campo.
15. “Lowland or hill meadows, often degraded by the presence of nitrophile species and neophytes used for pasturage”. This is used to identify unstable successional grassland found chiefly in hill areas. Such grassland is also heavily exploited for pasturage, but it has a greater floristic diversity than upland meadows and enjoys a better state of conservation probably because it grows on more fertile soil under less selective climatic conditions. It is best exemplified by the stretch of Regio Tratturo in the Common of Morcone.
16. “Hydrophilous formations in riparian and lacustrine areas”. This expression is used to identify all the riparian and lacustrine areas affected chiefly by annual, biennial or at times perennial herbaceous vegetation which are hard to map on the scale adopted. Prime areas are the lakes of Telese and Decorata.
Areas with substantial human pressure
This group includes all the areas heavily affected by human pressure which show a marked simplification in vegetation structures, a numerically floristic composition and a marked presence of human interventions. This category was subdivided into the following five types.
17. “Arable crops”. This is used to identify all the areas where seasonal crops are planted. It is particularly widespread through the province and constitutes the dominant element of the landscape, forming its matrix (
18. “Tree crops (fruit and olive orchards, vineyards) ”. This term is used to identify all the areas cultivated with intensive monospecific tree crops in irrigated areas. This vegetation type is chiefly represented by olive orchards, mixed fruit orchards chiefly at the foothills of the southern slope of Mt Taburno and the extremity of the Matese chain on Mt Erbano; this vegetation type is also found in the easternmost part of the province in the area of the mountain community of Fortore. Vineyards are chiefly found in the mid-valley of the River Calore and in the Telese valley in the Commons of Solopaca, S. Salvatore Telesino, Amorosi and Telese (
19. “Forest formations with
20. “
21. “Urban areas, built-up areas and quarries”. This class is used to identify areas affected by continuous and discontinuous urbanisation, industrial areas such as large industrial hangars and forecourts, and areas affected by extractive industries both on river beds and elsewhere.
Naturalness Map (1:50.000) for the province of Benevento is shown in
The diagram of the cumulative percentages in relation to the whole area of Benevento province (
What emerges from the table of surface areas of naturalness classes, the most representative element is undoubtedly naturalness class 8 which defines complex farmland in which arable crops are most common. This class is immediately followed by naturalness class 13 which represents the maximum expression of naturalness (broadleaf woodland). This vegetation type occupies 19.3%, that is, one-fifth of the whole province. The other categories occupying fairly extensive, albeit smaller, areas which have a significant weight and contribute to increasing the degree of naturalness are classes 9, 10 and 11 with their respective percentages of 2.26%, 1.64% and 3.3%. Of similar interest are naturalness classes 5 (2.71%) and 6 (3.8%) representing olive orchards and pastures, respectively. What reduces the degree of landscape conservation are built-up areas with their continuous and discontinuous urban structure and the mining areas, which together amount to 3% of the whole province. All the other naturalness classes amount to less than 1%, which is why they do not particularly affect the conservation plant landscape naturalness in the province.
The Benevento area shows, in terms of biodiversity, a great natural potential which should be protected and enhanced. The particular geolithological origins and geomorphological conformation, as well as the area’s water resources, make its plant communities of great environmental value. Rare endemic species of phytogeographic interest, together with natural phenomena such karst formations, dolines and many springs, contribute to making this area an environment with high natural value.
GIS screen during processing of the Vegetation Map.
GIS screen during processing of the Naturalness Map.
Vegetation map (1: 50.000) for the province of Benevento using IGM maps.
Vegetation Map legend for the province of Benevento.
Taburno beech wood with
Riparian wood with white willow (
Ploughed fields at the Bosco di Castelvetere in the Fortore valley.
Typical fluvial corridor crossing an agroecosystem in the Telese valley.
Naturalness Map (1:50.000) for the province of Benevento using IGM maps.
Diagram of the cumulative percentages for the whole province. The area above the curve is the degree of naturalness.
List of IGM maps covering the province of Benevento.
IGM Sheet Scale | No. | Main Locality |
---|---|---|
1:50 000 | 432 | Benevento |
1:50 000 | 406 | Riccia |
1:50 000 | 418 | Piedimonte |
1:50 000 | 431 | Caserta Est |
1:50 000 | 419 | S. Giorgio la Molara |
1:50 000 | 407 | S. Bartolomeo in Galdo |
1:50 000 | 420 | Troia |
Naturalness classes. The sequence is ordered according to the criterion of nearness to the mature vegetation phase (
Classes | Vegetation phase |
---|---|
0 | Extraction areas |
1 | Continuous urban built up |
2 | Discontinuous urban built up |
3 | Arable crops not watered |
4 | Vineyard |
5 | Olive orchards |
6 | Pastures |
7 | Coniferous woodland |
8 | Agricultural areas to complex structure |
9 | Fruity trees and shrubs (chestnut copse) |
10 | Natural prairie |
11 | Transition areas bushy/woody |
12 | Sclerophyll vegetation (Ampelodesmos and Mediterranean maqui) |
13 | Broadleaf woodland |
Surface areas of the 21 vegetation classes in the province.
Vegetation classes | Surface areas (mq) | n. Polygon | Surface % |
---|---|---|---|
1 | 1 493 715 | 2 | 0.07 |
2 | 39 623 673 | 18 | 1.9 |
3 | 11 728 763 | 25 | 0.57 |
4 | 183 844 789 | 591 | 8.86 |
5 | 9 898 846 | 2 | 0.47 |
6 | 8 203 878 | 14 | 0.39 |
7 | 53 624 827 | 387 | 2.58 |
8 | 3 182 970 | 2 | 0.15 |
9 | 30 639 405 | 61 | 1.47 |
10 | 23 001 095 | 109 | 1.1 |
11 | 743 581 | 10 | 0.035 |
12 | 3 436 074 | 2 | 0.16 |
13 | 4 277 115 | 7 | 0.2 |
14 | 111 733 609 | 142 | 5.38 |
15 | 744 809 | 3 | 0.035 |
16 | 260 785 | 2 | 0.012 |
17 | 1 140 055 067 | 2410 | 54.9 |
18 | 376 061 517 | 9198 | 18.15 |
19 | 15 987 494 | 7 | 0.76 |
20 | 4 665 639 | 39 | 0.22 |
21 | 53 624 827 | 198 | 2.59 |
Naturalness classes, surface areas and percentages at a provincial scale.
Vegetation classes | No. Polygon | Surface (ha) | % of each class | Percentual sum |
---|---|---|---|---|
0 | 88 | 37 574 | 0.19 | 0.19 |
1 | 105 | 519 031 | 2.69 | 2.88 |
2 | 7 | 23 093 | 0.12 | 3 |
3 | 16 | 57 146 | 0.29 | 3.29 |
4 | 14 | 176 631 | 0.91 | 4.2 |
5 | 93 | 523 538 | 2.71 | 6.91 |
6 | 55 | 732 491 | 3.8 | 10.71 |
7 | 40 | 51 550 | 0.26 | 10.97 |
8 | 436 | 11 988 154 | 62.14 | 73.11 |
9 | 65 | 437 695 | 2.26 | 75.37 |
10 | 90 | 316 006 | 1.64 | 77.01 |
11 | 175 | 630 483 | 3.3 | 80.31 |
12 | 13 | 73 876 | 0.39 | 80.7 |
13 | 1840 | 3 722 662 | 19.3 | 100 |